Warlords to Politicians: The Transformation of Rebel Leaders in Africa (on the Example of Sierra Leone)

The paper analyzes the processes of transformation of leaders of rebel movements and tribal militias (warlords) into leaders of political parties and senior government officials after the end of the Civil War (1991‑2002) in Sierra Leone. It is argued that the opportunities for an anti‑government (or, on the contrary, pro‑government) armed group to become an officially recognized political organization, and for erstwhile field commanders to become its leaders, emerge either in the event of a rebel victory or after the signing of a peace agreement (as it happened in Sierra Leone) and the beginning of the integration of former militants into the post‑war society. It is usually the implementation of disarmament, demobilization and reintegration programs that allows former rebels and their leaders to escape punishment for crimes committed during conflicts.
At the same time, the opportunity to “earn forgiveness” is not the only incentive for a warlord to evolve into a peacetime politician. Indeed, gaining political power in African countries entails access to various sources of enrichment, and since running armed groups requires their leaders to possess organizational and entrepreneurial skills and charisma ‑ naturally, along with less positive character traits ‑ many warlords who have not yet fulfilled their political ambitions or secured their financial situation try to “adapt” their wartime skills and experience to peaceful life.
A proven way of gaining power peacefully is by participating in presidential and parliamentary elections. It is assumed that the development of a political career by former rebels in the context of peacebuilding should prevent the unfolding of another spiral of violence, but this is far from always the case: accustomed to achieving goals by military means, they often attempt to solve political issues through violence in peacetime. The paper considers the reasons for certain former rebel leaders to remain committed to peacebuilding and for other warlords to prove unable to achieve political goals by peaceful means.

1. Abdullah I. (1998) Bush Path to Destruction: The Origin and Character of the Revolutionary United Front/ Sierra Leone. Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 36, no 2, pp. 203–235. DOI: 10.1017/S0022278X98002766

2. Abdullah I. (ed.) (2004) Between Democracy and Terror. The Sierra Leone Civil War, Dakar: CODESRIA.

3. Anders G. (2012) Bigmanity and International Criminal Justice in Sierra Leone. African Conflicts and Informal Power: Big Men and Networks (ed. Utas M.), New York Zed Books, pp. 158–180.

4. Brown D. (2000) Who Is Foday Sankoh? The Guardian, May 17, 2000. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/may/17/sierraleone, accessed 22.06.2020.

5. Chesterman S., Ignatieff M., Takur R. (eds.) (2005) Making States Work: State Failure and the Crisis of Governance, Tokyo: United Nations University Press.

6. de Zeeuw J. (ed.) (2007) From Soldiers to Politicians. Transforming Rebel Movements after Civil War, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.

7. Denisova T.S., Kostelyanets S.V. (2020) Guinea-Bissau: Political Leadership and Electoral Processes. Asia and Africa Today, no 4, pp. 34–31 (in Russian). DOI: 10.31857/S032150750009090-1

8. Foday Sankoh (2003). The Telegraph, July 31, 2003. Available at: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1437579/Foday-Sankoh.html, accessed 22.06.2020.

9. Foday Sankoh, Sierra Leone Rebel Leader, Dies (2003). Global Policy Forum, July 30, 2003. Available at: https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/165/29478.html, accessed 22.06.2020.

10. Foday Sankoh: The Cruel Rebel (2003). BBC, July 30, 2003. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3110629.stm, accessed 22.06.2020.

11. Gberie L. (2005) A Dirty War in West Africa. The RUF and the Destruction of Sierra Leone, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.

12. Hoffman D. (2011) The War Machines. Young Men and Violence in Sierra Leone and Liberia, L.: Duke University Press.

13. Kabbah A.T. (2010) Coming from the Brink in Sierra Leone: A Memoir, Accra: EPP Book Services.

14. Kandeh J. (2003) Sierra Leone’s Postconflict Elections of 2002. Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 41, no 2, pp. 189–216. DOI: 10.1017/S0022278X03004221

15. Kandeh J. (2008) Rouge Incumbents, Donor Assistance and Sierra Leone’s Second Post-conflict Elections of 2007. Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 46, no 4, pp. 603–635. DOI: 10.1017/S0022278X08003509

16. Karon T. The Resistible Rise of Foday Sankoh (2000). Time, May 12, 2000. Available at: http://content.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,45102,00.html, accessed 22.06.2020.

17. Keen D. (2005) Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone, Oxford: James Currey.

18. Lupick T. (2012) Ghosts of Civil War Haunt Sierra Leone Polls. Al Jazeera, November 16, 2012. Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/11/20121116104035514355. html, accessed 22.06.2020.

19. Paris R. (2004) At War’s End: Building Peace after Civil Conflict, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

20. Sierra Leone Business: Parliament Approves Leader of RUFP Eldred Collins as Board Member (2017). Awoko, March 6, 2017. Available at: http://awokonewspaper.com/sierra-leone-business-parliamentapproves-leader-of-rufp-eldred-collinsas-board-member, accessed 22.06.2020.

21. Sierra Leone: Special Court Accuses Indicted Militia of Inciting Civil Unrest (2004). AllAfrica, January 22, 2004. Available at: https://allafrica.com/stories/200401220106.html, accessed 22.06.2020.

22. Söderberg-Kovacs M. (2008) When Rebels Change Their Stripes: Armed Insurgents in Post-War Politics. From War to Democracy: Dilemmas to Peacebuilding (eds. Jarstad A.K., Sisk T.D.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 134– 156.

23. Special Court President Orders Inquiry into Death of Hinga Norman (2007). Special Court for Sierra Leone, February 23, 2007. Available at: http://www.rscsl.org/Documents/Press/2007/pressrelease-022307.pdf, accessed 22.06.2020.

24. The Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Reviewing the First Year (2004). International Center for Transitional Justice, January 2004. Available at: https://www.ictj.org/sites/default/files/ICTJ-SierraLeone-Justice-Review-2004-English.pdf, accessed 22.06.2020.

25. The Special Court for Sierra Leone: Promises and Pitfalls of a “New Model” (2003). International Crisis Group, August 4, 2003. Available at: https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/west-africa/sierra-leone/special-court-sierra-leone-promises-andpitfalls-new-model, accessed 22.06.2020.

26. Themnér A. (ed.) (2017) Warlord Democrats in Africa: Ex-military Leaders and Electoral Politics, L.: Zed Books.